Pragmatic and linguistic politeness output strategies

Brown and Levinson (1987) suggest that there are five pragmatic super-strategies for doing politeness, the selection of which is determined by the degree of face threat. We summarize these below (the examples are ours). They are ordered from least to most face threat, and include examples of linguistic output strategies:

Bald on record: The speaker performs the FTA efficiently in a direct, concise and perspicuous manner, or, in other words, in accordance with Grice’s maxims (1975). Typically used in emergency situations, or when the face threat is very small, or when the speaker has great power over the hearer.

Positive politeness: The speaker performs the FTA in such a way that attention is paid to the hearer’s positive face wants. Includes such strategies as paying attention to the hearer (Hello), expressing interest, approval or sympathy (That was so awful, my heart bled for you), using in-group identity markers (Liz, darling ...), seeking agreement (Nice weather today), avoiding disagreement (Yes, it’s kind of nice), assuming common ground (I know how you feel) and so on.

Negative politeness: The speaker performs the FTA in such a way that attention is paid to the hearer’s negative face wants. Includes such strategies as mollifying the force of an utterance with questions and hedges (Actually, I wondered if you could help?), being pessimistic (I don’t suppose there would be any chance of a cup of tea?), giving deference, that is, treating the addressee as a superior and thereby emphasizing rights to immunity (I’ve been a real fool, could you help me out?), apologizing (I’m sorry, I don’t want to trouble you but ...), impersonalizing the speaker and the hearer (It would be appreciated, if this were done) and so on.

Off-record: The speaker performs the FTA in such a way that he can avoid responsibility for performing it. The speaker’s face-threatening intention can only be worked out by means of an inference triggered by the flouting of a maxim.

Don’t do the FTA: The speaker simply refrains from performing the FTA because it is so serious.