Monosaccharide Cyclization

Less than 1% of each of the monosaccharides with five or more carbons exists in the open-chain (acyclic) form in solution. Rather, they are predominantly found in a ring (cyclic) form, in which the aldehyde (or keto) group has reacted with a hydroxyl group on the same sugar, making the carbonyl carbon (carbon 1 for an aldose, carbon 2 for a ketose) asymmetric. This asymmetric carbon is referred to as the anomeric carbon.
1. Anomers: Creation of an anomeric carbon (the former carbonyl carbon) generates a new pair of isomers, the α and β configurations of the sugar (for example, α-D-glucopyranose and β-D-glucopyranose), as shown in Figure 1, that are anomers of each other. [Note: In the α configuration, the –OH group on the anomeric carbon projects to the same side as the ring in a modified Fischer projection formula (see Fig. 1A) and is trans to the CH2OH group in a Haworth projection formula (see Fig. 1B). The α and β forms are not mirror images, and they are referred to as diastereomers.] Enzymes are able to distinguish between these two structures and use one or the other preferentially. For example, glycogen is synthesized from α-D-glucopyranose, whereas cellulose is synthesized from β-D-glucopyranose. The cyclic α and β anomers of a sugar in solution spontaneously (but slowly) form an equilibrium mixture, a process known as mutarotation (see Fig. 1). [Note: For glucose, the α form makes up 36% of the mixture.]

Figure 1 A. The interconversion (mutarotation) of the α and β anomeric forms of glucose shown as modified Fischer projection formulas. B. The interconversion shown as Haworth projection formulas. [Note: A sugar with a six-membered ring (5 C + 1 O) is termed a pyranose, whereas one with a fivemembered ring (4 C + 1 O) is a furanose. Virtually all glucose in solution is in the pyranose form.]
2. Reducing sugars: If the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon of a cyclized sugar is not linked to another compound by a glycosidic bond (see E. below), the ring can open. The sugar can act as a reducing agent and is termed a reducing sugar. Such sugars can react with chromogenic agents (for example, the Benedict reagent) causing the reagent to be reduced and colored as the aldehyde group of the acyclic sugar is oxidized to a carboxyl group. All monosaccharides, but not all disaccharides, are reducing sugars. [Note: Fructose, a ketose, is a reducing sugar because it can be isomerized to an aldose.]

A colorimetric test can detect a reducing sugar in urine. A positive result is indicative of an underlying pathology (because sugars are not normally present in urine) and can be followed up by more specific tests to identify the reducing sugar.

مواضيع ذات صلة

نقل الهرمونات في البلازما

تغاير خزن الهرمونات وإفرازها

تخليق POMC ومعالجته

The Amino Acids

Absorption & Transport of Transition Metals

Physiologic Roles of The Essential Transition Metals

تخليق الأنجيوتنسين

تخلیق PTH

تخليق الأنسولين

تخليق الهرمونات الدرقية: مثال آخر لتنوع الهرمونات

تخليق الكاتيكولامينات

تخليق الكالسيترايول