The mitochondria, shown in Figures 1 and 2, are called the “powerhouses” of the cell. Without them, cells would be unable to extract enough energy from the nutrients, and essentially all cellular functions would cease.

Fig1. Reconstruction of a typical cell, showing the internal organelles in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus.

Fig2. Structure of a mitochondrion. (Modified from DeRobertis EDP, Saez FA, DeRobertis EMF: Cell Biology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1975.)

Mitochondria are present in all areas of each cell’s cytoplasm, but the total number per cell varies from less than a hundred up to several thousand, depending on the amount of energy required by the cell. The cardiac muscle cells (cardiomyocytes), for example, use large amounts of energy and have far more mitochondria than do fat cells (adipocytes), which are much less active and use less energy. Further, the mitochondria are concentrated in those portions of the cell that are responsible for the major share of its energy metabolism. They are also variable in size and shape. Some mitochondria are only a few hundred nanometers in diameter and are globular in shape, whereas others are elongated and are as large as 1 micrometer in diameter and 7 micrometers long; still others are branching and filamentous.

The basic structure of the mitochondrion, shown in Figure 2, is composed mainly of two lipid bilayer protein membranes: an outer membrane and an inner membrane. Many infoldings of the inner membrane form shelves or tubules called cristae onto which oxidative enzymes are attached. The cristae provide a large surface area for chemical reactions to occur. In addition, the inner cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with a matrix that contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes that are necessary for extracting energy from nutrients. These enzymes operate in association with the oxidative enzymes on the cristae to cause oxidation of the nutrients, thereby forming carbon dioxide and water and at the same time releasing energy. The liberated energy is used to synthesize a “high-energy” substance called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is then transported out of the mitochondrion and diffuses throughout the cell to release its own energy wherever it is needed for performing cellular functions.

Mitochondria are self-replicative, which means that one mitochondrion can form a second one, a third one, and so on, whenever there is a need in the cell for increased amounts of ATP. Indeed, the mitochondria contain DNA similar to that found in the cell nucleus. The DNA of the mitochondrion plays a similar role, controlling replication of the mitochondrion. Cells that are faced with increased energy demands—which occurs, for example, in skeletal muscles subjected to chronic exercise training—may increase the density of mitochondria to supply the additional energy required.