Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
Phonetics and Phonology
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
The European language area
المؤلف:
P. John McWhorter
المصدر:
The Story of Human Language
الجزء والصفحة:
44-22
2024-01-19
438
The European language area
A. Even Western Europe is a language area, although when we speak a European language and are most exposed to others, it is easy to suppose that European features are simply “normal.”
B. Articles. For example, as normal as it seems to us for a language to have words for a and the, in fact, only about one in five of the world’s languages do, with many having neither (such as the ones in the Sinosphere). Proto-Indo-European did not have words for a and the. Instead, these words developed in a great many of its children and ones of different subfamilies spoken in the same region. In addition, even
Hungarian has a and the, despite being of a different family altogether, Uralic, which elsewhere tends not to have articles. The prevalence of this feature in Western Europe is due to grammar sharing over time, between subfamilies and even families of language.
C. Another example is the perfect construction with have. To express the perfect with have in a sentence such as I have sewn this dress is almost exclusively found in Europe. Again, this was not a feature of Proto-Indo-European, yet as rare as it is in languages of the world, it has developed again and again in various of its descendants.
D. These are a few of many ways in which European languages are similar, even though Proto-Indo-European lacked the feature and the feature often appears in languages outside of Indo-European, including Finnish, Hungarian, or Basque.
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