

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
Intonation
المؤلف:
Ulrike B. Gut
المصدر:
A Handbook Of Varieties Of English Phonology
الجزء والصفحة:
828-45
2024-05-08
1292
Intonation
Compared to native varieties of English, NigE intonation seems simplified. Most utterances, both in read and spontaneous speech, have a falling tone. Rising tones are relatively rare and occur mostly in yes-no questions and tag questions. Complex tones such as fall-rises and rise-falls are even rarer (Eka 1985; Gut 2003).
Gut (2003) investigated the native language influence on NigE intonation. All Nigerian languages are tone languages, where pitch is lexically significant, contrastive and relative. Tone is associated with tone-bearing units such as the syllable or the mora and differences in relative pitch are used to convey lexical and grammatical distinctions. Hausa and Igbo have two tones H (high) and L (low), and Yoruba has three tones: H (high), M (mid) and L (low). Gut (2003) tested the hypothesis that in NigE, like in tone languages, every syllable is associated with a tone and arrived at a first tentative proposal of NigE intonational phonology: two tones are sufficient to describe NigE intonation: H and L. There is initial raising, which causes initial low tones to appear phonetically as a mid tone. Equally, downstep lowers high tones on the second and subsequent lexical words to a phonetic mid tone. NigE has two boundary tones: H% and L%, which may combine with the level tones to form the contour tones HL and LH. A low boundary tone can suppress the H of a lexical word. This proposal now needs to be tested with a wider range of speech types and speakers.
In general, the pitch range in NigE is smaller than in British English (Eka 1985), but Jowitt (1991) reports an exceptionally wide pitch range in Yoruba English in some constructions. For example, a relative pronoun introducing a restrictive clause has a very high tone, as well as a sentence-initial if.
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