

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
Consonants
المؤلف:
Christine Jourdan and Rachel Selbach
المصدر:
A Handbook Of Varieties Of English Phonology
الجزء والصفحة:
696-39
2024-04-26
1059
Consonants

In general, Pijin consonants are rather similar to the corresponding consonants of English, except that English /r/ is typically replaced by an alveolar flap /ɾ/. A more thorough comparison of Pijin words and their English cognates.
There is a good deal of variation across individual speakers’ phoneme inventories, and as a result the decisions on inclusion and exclusion of phonemes in the above inventory are to some degree arbitrary. Not all speakers make use of the same set of distinctive features in their phoneme inventories, so that certain consonants will be conflated along different lines for different speakers. The voicing distinction is not always clear-cut, but both voiced and voiceless stops are included in the inventory as proposed above. For the alveolar fricative and the palatal affricate, however, we do not consider this distinction to be a phonemic one for most speakers. In reality, [č] alternates with [ǰ], which in turn alternate with [dy] and [d] in speakers who do not have palatal affricates. The palatal affricate may also be replaced with a fricative. The place of articulation of the fricative varies between alveolar [s] and palatal [ʃ].

[ǰ] and [ʃ] are not included in the inventory above, but are here considered phonetic variants of /č/ and /s/ respectively. Similarly, we will subsume [z] and [ʃ] under the voiceless /s/ as free variants, though clearly, some speakers apply a voicing distinction here. Slight feature differences in voicing, manner and place of articulation may therefore alter the individual speakers’ distribution of sounds in their phonemic and phonetic systems.
Other salient variants in the system proposed here resulting from such minimal differences occur with speakers who replace [p] with [f], or others who replace [f] with [p]. Also, voiced stops are often prenasalized, a feature that is also present in the vernaculars. Consonants /b/, /d/, /g/ are then realized as [mb], [nd], and [ŋg]. In some cases, written forms include the homorganic nasal, but in others, they do not, the spellings selectively reflecting the variation, e.g. sindaon or sidaon ‘sit down’ and babu or bambu ‘bamboo’.
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