Several examples involved vowels: for instance, we found that there is free variation for some speakers between [i] and [ε] in economic, but that these two vowels nonetheless contrast, as shown by minimal pairs like pet – peat, or hell – heal. We also saw that the usual contrast of /eI/, /ε/ andis neutralized before /r/ for many General American speakers, who pronounce Mary, merry and marry homophonously. It follows that the central ideas of phonemic contrast, with minimal pairs determining the members of the phoneme system, and rules showing allophonic variation in different contexts, apply equally to vowels and to consonants; free variation, phonetic similarity and neutralization affect both classes of sounds too. A more detailed demonstration of these issues for vowels, and the establishment of vowel phoneme systems for different varieties of English.

However, when we turn to the physical description of actual vowel sounds, it is not possible simply to reuse the parameters and features already introduced for consonants. Of course, vowels and consonants are all speech sounds; and in English at least, they are all produced using the same pulmonic egressive airstream. In almost all other respects, however, the features which allow us to classify and understand consonants are less than helpful in distinguishing between vowels.

six articulatory parameters were introduced: knowing the value for each of these allowed us to describe English consonants unambiguously, and would extend to further consonants found in other languages. To describe a consonant in articulatory terms, we needed to know the airstream mechanism involved; the state of the glottis, determining whether the sound is voiced or voiceless; the position of the velum, which either allows or stops airflow through the nose, making the consonant nasal or oral; the manner of articulation, namely stop, affricate, fricative or approximant; whether airflow is central or lateral; and finally, the place of articulation, and consequently the identity and position of the active and passive articulators.

Unfortunately, almost none of these helps us in classifying vowels. All vowels, universally, are produced on a pulmonic egressive airstream, with central airflow: there is no contrast between central and lateral vowels. It is possible, but rare, for vowels to be voiceless or nasal; in English, however, all vowel phonemes are voiced and oral, and voiceless and nasal allophones appear only in very specific circumstances, as we shall see later. Vowels are all continuants: that is, airflow through the oral tract is not significantly obstructed during their production, so they are all approximants on the consonant manner classification: there are no stop, fricative or affricate vowels. Finally, although we shall distinguish between vowels in terms of place of articulation, the range of options is much more restricted than for consonants, where places from labial to glottal are distinguished in English alone. All vowels are produced in a very limited ‘vowel space’ in the centre of the oral tract, roughly between palatal and velar in consonantal terms; and the place of articulation will also be much more difficult to ascertain from self-observation, since the tongue never moves close enough to the roof of the mouth in vowel production to make its position easy to feel.

It follows that an adequate vowel classification requires new features and descriptive parameters which are better designed to capture the ways in which vowels do vary. This kind of situation, where two classes of objects or concepts share some essential unity, but need different descriptors, is not unique to vowels and consonants. For instance, plants and animals are both categories of living things; they both populate the world widely, and are mutually necessary in terms of their complementary roles in gas exchange, for instance. They both require the same basic nutrients, operate according to the same chemical principles, and have common structures, including identical cell types. However, there is just as little point in classifying plants according to whether or not they are mammals, or have feathers, or are carnivores or herbivores, as there is in categorizing animals as being evergreen or dropping their leaves, bearing cones or flowers, or producing fruit or not. At that lower classificatory level, it is simply necessary to recognize the divergence of the two categories by using different distinguishing features. Equally, vowels and consonants are both speech sounds, and are both necessary for language, since they play complementary roles in structuring syllables and words. Both are formed by modifications of a moving airstream, carried out by the actions of the vocal folds and articulatory organs. However, below this very general, common level, consonants and vowels operate as different sets, and to allow us to produce as precise and insightful a classification of each set as possible, they must be described in different terms.

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