Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
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Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
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Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
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Grammar
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Elementary
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Exploring variation in language
المؤلف:
David Hornsby
المصدر:
Linguistics A complete introduction
الجزء والصفحة:
222-11
2024-01-01
1014
Given that all living languages are subject to variation, it is surprising that the subject was for so long ignored or downplayed by mainstream linguistics. In idealizing the ‘homogeneous speech-community’ for his own purposes, Chomsky (1965: 3), for example, was merely maintaining the prevailing assumption that variation was of little theoretical interest. Studying the relationship between language and society remained something of a taboo until the 1960s, when researchers in the emergent discipline of variationist sociolinguistics argued that no satisfactory account of linguistic change could be achieved without a proper understanding of how variation was structured.
Our focus is on variation within a language, or microvariation, and we look first at the approach of nineteenth-and twentieth-century dialectologists. Their methodology and assumptions differed greatly from that of modern-day sociolinguists, whose work we examine later. Armed with modern recording equipment and applying sociological concepts and methodology, sociolinguists have shown the close relationship between language and a range of extralinguistic or social factors.
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